7. List of images, figures, and tables
List of abbreviations
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Part I Studying a Public Policy Process
1. In a vast and complex area
2. Genesis and development of policy processes
3. The resurgence of case study research
4. Theory’s priority role
5. A crucial case
Part II Political Grounds for Social Marketing
1. Values and social sciences
2. Anglo-Saxon political philosophy
3. Social engineering, its limits and potentialities
4. North American pragmatism and public policy
5. Democracy and social marketing
6. A political conception of social marketing
Part III From Marketing to Social Marketing
1. Markets and marketing
2. The marketing thought
3. Broadening the marketing and its social dimension
4.The emergence of social marketing
5. Social marketing and other social change approaches
6. Criticism and social marketing development
7. Repositioning social marketing
8. Social marketing management
9. Social behaviour change and its theories
10. Ethical questions
11
15
23
29
34
35
38
42
44
45
50
51
54
56
63
70
76
78
79
87
94
101
105
109
115
118
121
123
8. Part IV The British Experience
1. A new public health global-sectorial frame of reference
2. The public health policy evolution in England
3. A national policy on social marketing
4. The social marketing reference frame in England
5. From normative to instrumental dimensions
6. The National Social Marketing Centre
7. National social marketing organizations’ comparative analysis
8. Standards for social marketing
9. The evolution of the British national policy on social marketing
10. Evaluation processes
11. Renewing a public policy reference frame
12. Recent developments
13. A big picture
Part V Conclusions
1. Evaluating a hypothesis
2. Framework for a national policy on social marketing
3. Potentialities and limitations
4. Policy transfer and implementation
5. Lessons from the field
References
Name Index
Appendices
A. Realising the Potential of Effective Social Marketing
B. 3 Years Grant Agreement
C. Social Marketing Benchmark Criteria
D. Learning Together: From Theory to Practice: Social
Marketing Learning Demonstration Sites
E. Social Marketing Training for South Central
F. Quick Reference Guide: The Procurement of Social
Marketing Services
G. Social Marketing Functional Map
H. Summary of Key Achievements
I. PHAST Project Report
J. Future of NSMC
128
129
135
139
141
147
150
156
161
168
171
175
181
185
188
189
191
193
194
195
199
237
250
255
263
275
279
289
305
309
317
325
337
11. Cover photo
Image F.1
Image A.1
Image I.1
Image I.2
Image I.3
Image I.4
Figure I.1
Table II.1
Table II.2
Figure III.1
Figure III.2
Table III.1
Image III.1
Table III.2
Table III.3
Figure III.3
Table III.4
Figure III.4
Figure III.5
Figure III.6
Figure III.7
Figure III.8
Figure III.9
Table III.5
Image III.2
Table III.6
Figure III.10
Figure IV.1
Table IV.1
Figure IV.2
Figure IV.3
Figure IV.4
Figure IV.5
Figure IV.6
Table IV.2
How many skies are there inside us? (by Ana Branca)
Keble College’s dining hall at University of Oxford (by David Iliff)
Letter from Jeff French, as NSMC Director, to Carlos Oliveira Santos
Choosing Health cover
It’s Our Health cover
Ambitions for Health cover
Changing Behaviour, Improving Outcomes cover
A reference framework
Lewin (1943), Eagerness to succeed
Lewin (1943), Relation between original preference for whole
wheat bread and eagerness to reach goal
Gross world product
World population
World development indicators since 1870
Miss Parloa’s first edition cover
Schools of marketing thought
Comparing Wiebe (1952) and Kotler & Zaltman (1971)
Kotler & Zaltman’s social marketing planning process
Some approaches and intervention processes in social behaviour
change
Le Net, 1981, Results by effect of persuasion
Le Net, 1981, Results by effect of regulation
Le Net, 1981, Results by effect of wrong control
Le Net, 1981, Results combining persuasion, regulation and control
Social marketing interventions levels
Strategic and operational use of social marketing
Operational models of social marketing
A CDCynergy Social Marketing Edition frame (Phase 1)
Theoretical models of behaviour change
Integrated theoretical framework for behavioural influences
Operating a global-sectorial reference frame policy
Milestones in new public health
Health policy network in England
Main early mediators of the social marketing reference frame in
England
National Social Marketing Strategy governance arrangements
A policy infusion process
NSMC governance arrangements
Learning Demonstration Sites
12. Image IV.1
and IV.2
Image IV.3
Table IV.3
Table IV.4
Figure IV.7
Image IV.4
Figure IV.8
Image IV.5
Image IV.6
Figure IV.9
Image IV.7
Image IV.8
Image IV.9
Image IV.10
Table IV.5
Image IV.11
Figure IV.10
Figure IV.11
Image IV.12
Figure IV.12
Figure V.1
NSMC organizational restructure drafts (end of 2007 and 29 January
2008; unpublished documents)
Big Pocket Guide Social Marketing cover
Comparing national social marketing organizations
Comparative analysis of national social marketing organizations names
Semantic fields of social marketing organizations names
Procurement Guide for Social Marketing Services cover
A functional map for social marketing
Checklist for assessing the competence and track record of social marketing
suppliers
Healthy Foundations Life-Stage Segmentation Model cover
Healthy Foundations five core motivational segments break down
Comparing Healthy Foundations motivational segments
Balanced Compensators segment characteristics
Change4Life One Year On report cover
Barriers to social marketing
Learning Demonstration Sites helps and hinders
Mapping the causes of obesity
Evolution of reference frame
The new government marketing in public health agenda
Public Health England Marketing Strategy 2014-2017 cover
Framework for the national British policy on social marketing reference
mediation
Framework for a national policy on social marketing reference frame
15. AASM
ABPI
AESE
AMA
BMA
BUPA
CDC
CEBI
CERAT
CF
COI
DEFRA
DHSS
DoH
EC
ECB
EQUAL
ESMA
ETSC
GCN
GNP
HCSMD
HDA
HSC
IMF
INUAF
IPPS
ISCEM
ISCEF
ISCSP
ISCTE-IUL
Australian Association of Social Marketing
Association of the British Pharmaceuticals Industry
Associação de Estudos Superiores de Empresa (Association for Higher
Studies of Enterprise)
American Marketing Association
British Medical Association
British United Provident Association
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Centro de Bem-Estar Infantil de Alverca (Center for Children Wellbeing
of Alverca; currently Fundação para o Desenvolvimento Comunitário,
Foundation for Community Development)
Centre de Recherche sur le Politique, l’Administration, la Ville et le Territoire
Consumer Focus
Central Office of Information
Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
Department of Health and Social Security
Department of Health
European Commission
European Central Bank
European Union’s initiative for tackling discrimination and disadvantage
in the labour market (2000-2008)
European Social Marketing Association
European Transport Safety Council
Government Communications Network
Gross National Product
Health Canada Social Marketing Division
Health Development Agency
Health Sponsorship Council
International Monetary Fund
Instituto Superior Dom Afonso III (Higher Institute Dom Afonso III)
Instituto de PolĂticas PĂşblicas e Sociais (Institute for Public and Social
Policy)
Instituto Superior de Comunicação Empresarial (Higher Institute
of Business Communication)
Instituto Superior de CiĂŞncias EconĂłmicas e Financeiras (Higher
Institute of Economic and Financial Sciences, currently ISEG)
Instituto Superior de CiĂŞncias Sociais e PolĂticas (Higher Institute
of Social and Political Sciences)
Instituto Superior de Ciências do Trabalho e da Empresa – Instituto
Universitário de Lisboa (Higher Institute of Labour and Enterprise
Sciences – University Institute of Lisbon)
21. 21
SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE
Image F.1 Keble College’s dining hall at University of Oxford
(a black-and-white reproduction of a photo by David Iliff)
23. 23
SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE
T
hinking about Harry Potter is almost inevitable. I know Christ Church Col-
lege’s dining hall was the location that inspired the movie’s shootings but in
this one, the Keble College’s, also in Oxford, we could equally expect the
delivering of a howler.1
In 2007, it was here that I met Jeff French for the first time. I had explained my
research project to him and asked for his support and authorization for accessing the
National Social Marketing Centre (NSMC), of which he was the director. This was
a way in towards the main purpose of my research – to follow, as a crucial case study,
the British national social marketing strategy, initiated in 2004, understanding how
it emerged, developed and was implemented, in order to use their lessons to support
similar social marketing processes in other countries.
As you have already understood, this academic book about social marketing,
marketing, marketing thought, public policy and policy processes, is for those who
believe in the betterment of life in their societies, the life of their fellow citizens sub-
mitted to all the problems that we had inherited, that we had created or in which we
are involved.
In 1992, I started teaching social marketing at the Higher Institute of Business
Communication (ISCEM), in Lisbon, Portugal, a young and small institution that
benefitted from the advantages of private initiative in higher education, gathering a
set of experienced professionals, innovative and more open to the introduction of
modern teaching than traditional Portuguese university institutions. I think that one
was the first teaching experience of social marketing in Portugal.
Before 1992, thanks to my brief training in economics at the Higher Institute of
Economic and Financial Sciences (now the School of Economics and Management
1  An object created by J.K. Rowling in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (1998): a magic letter
that speaks its message in the writer’s voice and bursts into flames ending up in ashes.
24. 24
CARLOS OLIVEIRA SANTOS
of the University of Lisbon, ISEG) in the early 1970s (although interrupted by my
arrest in 1971 and 1973 by the dictatorship’s political police), I had been working
since 1983 in the area of marketing and communication in certificated companies
such as BBDO or BJKE (currently Bozell) in Portugal. This one was owned by the
SONAE industrial and commercial group, the greatest Portuguese one. In 1992, I
participated in a political marketing consultants’ group that supported one of that
year’s national legislative election campaigns.
An ISCEM innovation, a ground-breaking for the time in Portugal, was the setting
up of a public communication chair, which I was invited to teach, having immediately
integrated the social marketing dimension refreshed by the recent publication of ÂKotler
& Roberto’s book, Social Marketing Strategies for Changing Public Behavior (1989).
From then on, I dedicated myself to this area. In 1994, in a marketing management
course at the same school, I was already teaching an autonomous social marketing class.
Unknown to me before the previously book by Kotler & Roberto, I admit that
my interest in this area was motivated by a similar one by Heede (1985):
«[these early critical scholars] took their degrees in marketing, perhaps by happen-
stance, because they, as outsiders, wanted to study how the modern society was
functioning so that they could change it in accordance with the values they were
exposed to in their youth. As they ended up as young professors in marketing de-
partments where they discovered that the marketing system was corrupting them.
Therefore they want to change the system from inside by creating a new marketing
system suitable for the society they want.» (p. 148)
When the first Portuguese post-graduation course in political and social marketing
was introduced in the Higher Institute of Labour and Enterprise Sciences (currently
ISCTE-University Institute of Lisbon) in 2002, I had the pleasure of both co-directing
and teaching it. In that same year, in the article «The efficiency of public communica-
tion: For an integrated perspective of communication, social marketing and public
policy» (Santos, 2002), I stood up for an enlarged perspective of social marketing,
mainly inspired by Wallack (1989). Bearing in mind that Hastings & Donovan’s ar-
ticle («International initiatives: introduction and overview»), where this approach was
suggested, is also from 2002, and that Alan Andreasen’s book (Social Marketing in the
21st Century), where this enlarged perspective has been developed and diffused, is from
2006, one has to recognize a modest but pioneering position in my article.
In any case, there was the conceptual basis on which social marketing is still seen
today in this book: an approach and a methodology that, aiming for the betterment
of people’s social behaviour, articulate specific interventions with a wider policy con-
text that honestly and effectively aim for citizens’ improved wellbeing.
Seeking to enlarge knowledge beyond the academy, it was with great pleasure
26. 26
CARLOS OLIVEIRA SANTOS
Part I states the methodological fundaments of the study, situates the field from
which it was generated, puts the main issue to be addressed and advances a hypoÂ
thesis to explore and an explanatory theory that aims to sustain it, which will be
tested according to the case study research method (Yin, 1984), based on the British
one considered as crucial.
Part II sets out the political grounds for social marketing and formulates a po-
litical conception of this discipline on the basis of freedom and democracy, and a
goÂvernment accountable to citizens, practicing a “piecemeal social engineering”, in
Karl Popper’s own words, and adopting the concepts and criteria of pragmatism.
My own statement about social marketing is the main content of Part III, based on
the own theory and practice of marketing, as well as on the conceptual evolution of
social marketing and its wider role, where a downstream approach is combined with an
upstream one, addressing the structural and social factors, depending on their political,
social and economic decision makers and agents. I know that many of the issues ad-
dressed in Part III have already been mentioned by other authors, but my purpose was
to create a reasoning line and a comprehensive way for this book’s readers.
Parts I, II and III go hand in hand as a mixed framework for the focus of our
study. Part IV, the core of this book, describes and analyses with appropriate detail
the data resulting from the study of the British national policy on social marketing
according to our explanatory theory.
Finally, Part V assesses the initial hypothesis in the light of the findings of the
case study research, formulating a national policy on social marketing framework,
addressing their potential and limitations, taking into account the inherent policy
transfer problems and implementation, and indicating some possible lines of re-
search for the development of this study.
In the Appendices we gather a few documents related with the British national
policy on social marketing. It is important that all the statements, documents and
references we present, can enable independent judgments about this study, according
to the criteria of validity and replication, as well as support the knowledge and policy
transfer to any other implementation process of a national policy on social market-
ing. May this work be useful for those who want to develop social marketing in their
own countries, communities and lives. I wish them well.
C.O.S.
29. 29
SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE
T
he sense of acknowledgement is inherent to all scientific research, consciously
knowing that without a whole lot of people it wouldn’t have been possible. In
England, I have already mentioned him but it is never too much: Jeff French’s
role was decisive and unsurpassable. Presently he is one of social marketing’s world
authorities and a true remarkable professor, but, beyond that, everyone recognizes
him as an open, generous, restless person in the purpose of increasing knowledge in
this area and giving it utility for people and societies.
It was with his precious help that I entered number 20 Grosvenor Gardens’ attic
in London, by then NSMC’s small address, a place of healthy socializing amongst
people who loved social marketing and who were doing everything to implant it in
England. Subtracting time and kindness to welcome and speak to me from their
own works of great responsibility, I cannot forget Clive Blair-Stevens, John Bromley,
Rowena Merrit, Denise Ong, Steve Menzies, Paul White, Patrick Ladbury, Dominic
McVey, Chris Holmes, Alex Christopoulos, Marie Meredith, Lucy Reynolds, Aiden
Truss and Emmet Giltrap. With each of them, I had the pleasure of exchanging
words and documents, collecting their testimonies and attending some of their ac-
tions. Through NSMC, I still had the chance to enter the Department of Health of
the British government where I made contact with and collected precious informa-
tion from Fiona Adshead, Julie Alexander and Mehboob Umarji.
In my specific education in social marketing, the contact with the University of
South Florida, in Tampa, United States, was also very important throughout the
course in Social Marketing in Public Health. Also, my participation in several con-
ferences of Social Marketing in Public Health allowed a direct relationship with pres-
tigious personalities like Philip Kotler, Alan Andreasen, Bill Smith, Carol Bryant,
Nancy Lee, Craig Lefebvre, Gerard Hastings, Jim Lindenberger, Bill Novelli, Rob
Donovan, Doug McKenzie-Mohr, Michael Rothschild, Kelli McCormack Brown,
Beverly Schwartz and Jim Mintz, among others. About the frame of reference ap-
36. SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE
36
As we know, the list of problems is endless – from those related to health, envi-
ronment and energy to others such as illiteracy, social prejudices, communitarian
dysfunction, civic apathy, criminal behaviour and extremely negligent behaviour.
Add to that, human and social costs that tend to be huge, including all the financial
costs incurred (see Lister, 2007; Lister et al., 2008)1
. In our societies, all this has
motivated numerous approaches and intervention forms, especially when they are
democracies in which governments and public administration have the obligation to
contribute for the citizens’ welfare.
One of those approaches is this research’s specific area. Since the beginning of the
1970s (see Kotler & Zaltman, 1971)2
, the possibility of concepts, instruments and
marketing experience being applied to social behaviour change has become effective
in starting a new area – social marketing (see Bloom & Novelli, 1981; Manoff, 1985;
Lefebvre & Flora, 1988; Kotler & Roberto, 1989; and more recently, Andreasen,
2015; and French, 2015b) – which would soon gain relevance in several interna-
tional organizations such as the WHO, FAO or the World Bank.
In the 1980s, in Canada, the interest from the central government to incorporate
social marketing started systematically, either functionally or structurally, in public
policy and its interventions of social behaviour change mostly in the health area.
Thus, in 1981, the Canadian Health Department framed the Health Canada Social
Marketing Unit. In 1994, it was the time for the New Zealand government to create,
also in the Health Department area, the Health Sponsorship Council. In the United
States, as a consequence of the Futures Initiative, also in the health area, the National
Centre for Health Marketing was created in 2004.
In England, in 2004, the British government delivered the White Paper
Choosing Health: Making Healthy Choices Easier, starting a wider national stra-
tegic policy on social marketing (cf. appendix A). Two years later, following the
national review It’s Our Health: Realising the Potential of Effective Social Market-
ing, a National Social Marketing Centre was created (cf. appendix B), on the ba-
1  See this interesting Portuguese study conducted by the Road Accident Research Unit of the Techni-
cal Higher Institute of the University of Lisbon: «In Portugal in 2004, 1294 people lost their lives in
road accidents: For the same period, in Sweden it was 480. Even correcting these values to an identical
population, means that in Portugal, lost their lives more 735 people than in Sweden. If the loss ratio
values were maintained in the next 10 years, it would mean that they would die in Portugal 7350 more
people than in Sweden, for an equivalent population» (Road Accident Research Unit of the Technical
Higher Institute of the University of Lisbon; available at http://www1.dem.ist.utl.pt/acidentes/memo-
rias.shtml; accessed 15 April 2012). Considering the European Transport Safety Council’s 2014 Value
of Preventing one road Fatality (VPF), which is 1.94 million euros per fatality (see ETSC, 2015, p.13),
then the total monetary costs of these additional victims it will be 14 259 million euros. This amount
is a fifth of the bailout programme 2010-2014 on financial assistance to the Portuguese Republic by
European Commission on behalf of the Eurogroup, the European Central Bank (ECB) and the Inter-
national Monetary Fund (IMF).
2  Although Harvey (1999) marks the first use of social marketing in family-planning activities in India
in 1964 by promoting Nirodh condoms, with the support of companies like Unilever and Brooke Bond
Tea Company (see also French, 2015b).
37. PART I STUDYING A PUBLIC POLICY PROCESS
37
sis of a partnership between the Department of Health (DoH) and the National
Consumer Council (NCC)3
, the national consumers’ defence organization. Such
policy was reinforced in 2008 by the deliberation of the then Labour govern-
ment, Ambitions for Health: A Strategic Framework for Maximizing the Potential
of Social Marketing and Health-Related Behaviour, which was developed in 2011
by the decision Changing Behaviour, Improving Outcomes: A New Social Mar-
keting Strategy for Public Health, issued by the Conservative-Liberal Democrats
coalition government invited by the Queen in 2010. Also, during the second
Cameron ministry, social marketing kept its importance in public health policy,
well-evident in the maintenance of the Public Health England Marketing Strategy
2014-2017 and in its specific Social Marketing Strategy.
In an institutionalized way and framed in national policy, social marketing en-
tailed nationwide programmes, mobilizing the work of thousands of agents and mil-
lions of people involved with it, broadening its dimension as a professional and
academic field and having, in the meanwhile, the results of the interventions been
submitted for several evaluations (see Gordon et al., 2006; Helmig & Thaler, 2010).
As an approach and practice, in the frame of public policy, social marketing is a
reality that is important to know, analyse and give potential to, in the wider range of
social behaviour change and as an important factor to the betterment of life in socie-
ties. This was the first purpose of our study.
I admit that Part I of this book may sound unsuited to a non-academic reader,
probably in a hurry to focus on the British case story, but I did it as a social scientist,
and my mission is to support my work with conceptual strength, whatever commu-
nication difficulties that this may entail.
Images I.1, I.2, I.3 and I.4 Some of the main documents of the British national policy on social marketing
(2004-2011)
3  In 2007 Consumer Focus was created as a brand of the NCC, and in May 2013 Consumer Focus
was renamed Consumer Futures, as an executive non-departmental public body of the Department for
Business Innovation & Skills, representing consumers across regulated markets, but it was abolished
on 1 April 2014, with all its functions transferred to other bodies (Citizens Advice, Citizens Advice
Scotland and General Consumer Council for Northern Ireland).
38. SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE
38
I.2. Genesis and development of policy processes
The bottom line is what we are studying is a policy process (see Hill, 1997; Sabatier,
2007). How does a public policy process – in this case, integrating social marketing
– emerge, develop and become implemented? Our aim is to analyse the genesis and
development of the type of policies and organizations in that field; in other words,
extracting analysis, theory and frameworks that are susceptible to lead new experiences
in other countries or new developments in those where these have already been created.
This study’s main issue is the why and how a national social marketing strategic policy
emerges, develops and acts; however, the main purpose of our research was to under-
stand the conditions and cognitive dynamics in which that process unfolded.
Research is always a choice, keeping in mind a wide science perspective, namely the
one expressed in Karl Popper’s tetradic schema (1994), in which a problem submitted
to a theoretical or experimental attempt, as a solution proposal, undergoes necessarily
through a critical-error and elimination process opening the way to the formulation of
new problems4
. This is science’s inexorable path and its contribution to social problems.
Today we are witnessing enormous development in cognitive studies of the politi-
cal and social processes. By differentiation from exclusively normative, institutional,
behaviourist, functionalist, rational choice or merely discursive approaches (see Marsh
& Stoker, 1995), the cognitive approaches are based on the importance of considering
«elements of knowledge, ideas, representations or social beliefs in the elaboration of
public policy» (Surel, 2006, p. 80), in the path of “classical” approaches to cognitivism,
namely the ones coming from psychology (see. Broadbent, 1958; Neisser, 1967). As
Schmidt (2008) puts it, «cognitive ideas – also sometimes called causal ideas – provide
the recipes, guidelines, and maps for political action and serve to justify policies and
programmes by speaking to their interest-based logic and necessity» (p. 306).
So this investigation’s hypothesis frames itself in the «last postulate common to
these works» (Surel, 2006, p. 85), namely, «the major hypothesis which associates the
significant change in public action to a transformation of the cognitive and normative
elements which characterise a policy, a problem or a specific sector of public interven-
tion» (p. 85). The perspective that states that the State in action (see Jobert & Muller,
1987) is not a homogeneous and monolithic unity of immediate and unilateral effec-
tiveness, as well as the consciousness of complexity of «intellectual constructions which
preside to the emergence and then the statement and fulfilment of a policy» (Faure et
al., 1995, p. 9), have led to the development of numerous approaches.
4  «My theory of evolution is based on my oversimplified tetradic schema, P1
ď‚°TTď‚°EEď‚°P2
. Here,
TT may be a tentative theory, but it may be, more generally, a tentative trial. EE... is error elimination
– not necessarily by way of critical discussion, but also, for example, due to natural selection or, at any
rate, due to failure to solve the problem P1. P2 is, of course, the new problem, which may arise either
from the error elimination or from the tentative trial.» (Popper, 1994, p. 79).
40. SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE
40
One agrees with Surel (2006) in this aspect when he compares it with Hall’s para-
digms or Sabatier’s advocacy coalition frameworks:
«Both undoubtedly bear less attention to the importance of cognitive and nor-
mative variable in the explanation of elaboration and implementation of public
policy than Bruno Jobert and Pierre Muller.» (p. 84)
The reference frame theory underlines not only that attention but also develops it
in concepts and analysis units that are particularly enlightening. The construction of
a new public policy frame of reference comes from a joint process that Muller desig-
nates as mediation (see Muller, 1995), where several mediators are involved, operating
in forums, places where such construction is developed, discussed and operated, a
process through which are created «political conditions for the definition of a new
social interest expression space, from a frame of reference which is simultaneously nor-
mative and cognitive in which the different actors will be able to mobilize resources
and firm alliances or conflicts.» (p. 161).
In the scope of public policy the new way of thinking and intervening that results is
formed in a «new conception of public action in the sector» (p. 156), gifted of «a struc-
ture of sense that allows thinking about the change in its different dimensions» (idem).
That mediation dynamics is developed through four units of analysis that Muller
designates as «levels of perception of the world» (p.158), values, norms, algorithms
and images:
«Values are the most fundamental representations... about what is good and evil,
desirable and rejectable»; «the norms define the differences between the real un-
derstood and the real wanted»; «the algorithms are the causal relations which ex-
press a theory of action»; «the images... make immediate sense without going
through a long discursive course... they constitute a central element of a frame of
reference.» (pp. 158 and 159)
These four units gather themselves according to two pairs of dimensions
«which is of absolute importance to bear in mind together if one wants to under-
stand the mediation process in its whole» (p. 163). The first one is the pair cogni-
tive dimension/normative dimension. In its cognitive dimension, the mediation
processes «help to understand the world» (p. 164), in the normative one, «they
define the criteria which allow to act on the world, in other words, the different
public policy’ goals» (p. 164).
The second pair of dimensions is the intellectual field/power field. In the intellectual
field, in a process of word taking, the “production of sense” happens; in the field of
power and of power taking, the «structure of a force field» is developed. Jobert (1992)
on his side adds one more dimension to the reference frame and clarifies their meaning:
42. SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE
42
As a system of beliefs, a frame of reference is also a strategic approach, where a mul-
tiplicity of agents constantly intervenes, and which cannot be reduced to a merely
discursive process. And even beyond the strategic and active, a public policy frame
of reference becomes involved in the wider scope of the State’s legitimacy before its
citizens when preserving, renovating or searching such legitimacy, as a set of social,
political and economical rights, of participation rules in political life and values that
determine the relationship State/citizens (see Jenson et al., 2007).
Colomb (2009) signals that «taking into account the legitimating dimension allows
one to understand precisely the frame of reference significances» (p. 4). In this aspect,
Muller (2005) has advanced, since the start of his reference frame theoretical formula-
tion, with the concept of a global reference frame, besides the sectorial references, that
being understood not like a «perfectly unified cognitive and normative structure that
would impose itself mechanically to the conjunct of social life’s domains» (p. 177),
but as «a kind of “hard core” which corresponds to the heart of the dominant vision
in a given moment strongly articulated at the value level» (p. 177). This is something
similar to the deep core beliefs of the public advocacy coalitions in Sabatier & Jenkins-
Smith (1993). There are indeed many points of contact between the reference frame
theory and the approach of Sabatier & Jenkins-Smith, allowing a comparative analysis
of the research process developed here with others who directly support the approach
of those authors.
In short, the goal of this research on the emergence and evolution of a social mar-
keting frame of reference in a specific national public policy is to evaluate our hypothesis
(that it is a significant cognitive process that develops itself for the emergence, affirma-
tion and implementation of a new political and social reality modelling), testing in an
appropriate case the theoretical approach mentioned, and searching to extract from our
research a cognitive model of social marketing in national public policy.
I.3. The resurgence of case study research
The selection of the method that will submit the mentioned tentative theory to
experimentation and critical analysis is obviously an essential step of this investiga-
tion, which should be articulated with the nature of this study’s primordial question:
how and why a new social marketing frame of reference in national public policy ap-
pears, processes and develops itself? Facing this question, it is almost natural to evoke
Robert Yin’s (1984/2003a) position:
«In general, case studies are preferred strategy when “how” or “why” questions are
being posed, when the investigator has little control over events, and when focus
is on a contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context.» (p. 1)
This preference is reinforced by that author’s definition for this kind of research:
43. PART I STUDYING A PUBLIC POLICY PROCESS
43
«A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomeÂ
non within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenom-
enon and context are not clearly evident.» (p. 13)
In this sense, adopting the case study research as our main method depends deeply
on posed questions and on the investigator’s position on the object of study, which in
the present study is quite adequate. The “how” and the “why” are our primordial ques-
tions, even if this investigation isn’t limited to a merely descriptive frame but rather
integrated in what Evera (1997) states as one of the great strengths of the case method:
«If case study evidence supports a hypothesis, the investigator can then explore
the case further to deduce and test explanations detailing the operation of the
hypothesis.» (p. 54)
If one considers, as Collier & Ellman (2008), that we have recently been watch-
ing, especially after 2007’s economical crisis, a resurgence in qualitative studies –
which Dinzon & Lincoln (2005) come to designate as “the qualitative revolution”
(p. ix) , we have to include in it the significant development of the case study research
methodology, well explicit in the edition of some important works, among which
The Sage Handbook of Case-Based Methods published by Byrne & Ragin (2009), with
its focus on the importance of cases as «instances of a particular situation or set of
circumstances» (p. 1); or the Encyclopedia of Case Study Research published by Mills,
Eurepos & Wiebe (2010), with a wide concept and experiences review, «combining
entries from across the social sciences and humanities, and encouraging work from
across the methodological traditions» (p. xxxi).
For those academic fields and situations where the case study research was con-
fronted (and still is confronted) with the opposition of numerous arguments and,
let us call them prejudices, the whole debate taking place over the last few years, the
evidence and consistency of the published approaches have come to significantly
enrich this methodological process.
In the specific plan of political science, Bennett & Ellman (2006) and Byrne et
al. (2009) have done clear reviews of the adoption of the case study method, where
one aspect is especially underlined, like Olsen & Duggan (2009) have signalled:
«The experience of the researchers is that quantitative knowledge cannot work
without a narrative… there is a major turn to qualitative work in part because it
provides narratives.» (p. 519)
This underlining of the narrative’s importance is, moreover, consonant with the
growing attention to the studies on storytelling as an instrument of research and
approach (see McKee, 1997; Guber, 2007) in subjects as distinct as political sci-
44. SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE
44
ence (see Jackson, 2006; Polletta, 2006; Polletta, 2008) or management (see Boje,
2008c), pinpointing new concepts as antenarrative (see Boje, 2008b), meaningful
whole (see Czarniawska, 1999), emotional effect (see Gabriel, 2000), in situ narratives
(see O’Connor, 2002), co-producing (see Denning, 2002) or storytelling organizations
(see. Boje, 2008a). This focus on the narrative and storytelling is another factor to
privilege the case study research, given its undeniable capacity to incorporate and
generate those approaches.
While opting for the case study research method, our whole investigation was
based on O’Donnell’s (2007) statement: «Claims that any single methodology may
offer the answer to everything are preposterous» (p. 303). And even if it is also absurd
to completely reject the capacities of the case study research, both in the descriptive
and the explanatory plan, the debate on its scientific validity still makes sense as a
methodology as does the debate on all the other research methods, especially when
one intends to apply them.
I.4 Theory’s priority role
The steps shown earlier about the existence of an explanatory theory – the public
policy frame of reference – clears the previous role of the theory in the development of
a case study research. Like Yin (1984/2003a) points out:
«(The) role of theory development, prior to the conduct of any data collection,
is one point of difference between case studies and related methods such as eth-
nography (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, 1986; Van Maanen, 1988: Van Maanen et al.,
1982) and “grounded theory” (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Typically, these related
methods deliberately avoid specifying any theoretical propositions at the outset
of an inquiry… Among other considerations, the relevant field contacts depend
on an understanding – or theory – of what is being studied… For case studies,
theory development as part of the design phase is essential, whether the ensuing
case study’s purpose is to develop or test theory. (p. 28)
Whether it is like a blueprint for the case study, or as «a (hypothetical) story about
why acts, events, structure, and thoughts occur» (Sutton & Staw, 1995, p. 378), or
whether it is still like more than a story, like a factor or explanatory theory (see Yin,
1989), to establish a case study in one or in a group of theoretical approaches «will
provide surprisingly strong guidance in determining what data to collect and the
strategies for analysing the data» (Yin, 1984/2003a, p. 29). In line with Harry Eck-
stein (1975) or Alexander L. George and Andrew Bennett (2004), «the use of theory,
in doing case studies, is not only an immense aid in defining the appropriate research
design and data collection but also becomes the main vehicle for generalizing the
results of the case study» (Yin, 1984/2003a, p. 33).
45. PART I STUDYING A PUBLIC POLICY PROCESS
45
One thus diverges, as Yin did, from the positions that totally eliminate the re-
source to any previous theory, specifically from the grounded theory positions (see
Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss, 1987; Strauss & Corbin, 1990) or from Kathleen
M. Eisenhardt’s (1989; 2007), both inductive, even if the last one considers the pos-
sibility of apriori constructs (Eisenhardt, 1989, p. 533) and doesn’t stand any incom-
patibility with deductive approaches:
«In fact, inductive and deductive logics are mirrors of one another, with inductive
theory building from cases producing new theory from data and deductive theory
testing completing the cycle by using data to test theory.» (Eisenhardt & Graebner,
2007, p. 25)
This author’s roadmap «for building theories from case study research» (Eisenhardt,
1989, p. 532) is very useful for studies like ours, when it is about adopting multiple
data collecting methods, combining qualitative and quantitative processes, data triangu-
lation, within-case analysis, interactive tabulation and comparisons between similar and
conflicting literature, with the main purpose of reaching a stronger grounding for the
hypothesis, or – in our case – reaching a coherent deduction from the explanatory theory.
I.5 A crucial case
Choosing a case to study is a decisive step in this kind of research and its criteria
should correctly be put ahead – and in first place should be the main reason for choosing
a unique case. Joe R. Feagin understands that «a case study is... defined as an in-depth,
multifaceted investigation, using qualitative research methods, of a single case phenomeÂ
non» (Feagin et al., 1991, p. 2). However, this reduction by definition to a single case and
to exclusive qualitative methods isn’t presently accepted by many investigators. As in the
present study, choosing a unique case is optional and not compulsory.
To select this case, as John Gerring (2008) points, «case-selection procedures in
case study research may build upon prior cross-case analysis and that they depend,
at the very least, upon certain assumptions about the broader population» (p. 646).
In our specific case that prior cross-case analysis was led and introduced in Santos
(2008), and we will go back to it in chapter IV.7.
Its assumptions resulted from the goal and main question posed by the investiga-
tion – therefore, the mentioned population gathered the countries where national
social marketing policy and organizations existed dependent on government. What
implicates that important social, academic or professional organizations haven’t been
considered.6
6  Among them the Social Marketing Institute (Washington, United States), The Turning Point So-
cial Marketing National Excellence Collaborative (United States), Florida Prevention Research Center
(University of South Florida, United States), Weinreich Communications (Washington, United States),
46. SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE
46
The sample resulting from that option was thorough and included Canada, New
Zealand, United States and England7
, with the previously mentioned organizations
– the Health Canada Social Marketing Unit (currently its functions were divided by
several Health Canada’s branches like Healthy Environments and Consumer Safe-
ty, Health Products and Food or Communications and Public Affairs), the Health
Sponsorship Council (currently Health Promotion Agency), the National Center
for Health Marketing (currently Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC’s
Gateway to Communication & Social Marketing Practice) and the National Social
Marketing Centre. Each of these cases has four necessary characteristics susceptible
of embodying the aimed analysis units:
–– a national dimension;
–– the existence of a more or less wider national social marketing policy;
–– the existence of at least one organization resulting from that policy;
–– the existence of actions resulting from that policy.
At the beginning of this research, in 2004, to select from among those cases, we
needed to consider other important aspects like:
–– to be recent and able to directly observe its evolution;
–– to be headquartered in a European country should be considered as an advantage,
whether on how its study might imply in the diffusion and implementation of
social marketing in Europe, or on better proximity, access and relationship condi-
tions.
On the other side, following Harry Eckstein’s (1975) classification developed by
Gerring (2008) and given this research’s goal, the case chosen would have to be cru-
cial, or, «one “that must closely fit a theory if one is to have confidence in the theory’s
validity”… a case is crucial in a somewhat weaker – but much more common-sense
when it is most, or least, likely to fulfil a theoretical prediction» (Eckstein, 1975, cit.
by Gerring, 2008, p. 659).
It is clear that in the research’s early phase, «the task of case selection is usually
handled by some version of randomization» (Gerring, 2008, p. 645). In this selection
of a case, some may pose the problem of its representativeness. Repeating ÂGerring,
the case should, in the course of this investigation, mostly show that «closely fit a
theory». Eisenhardt & Graebner (2007) hold an identical position:
Canadian Social Marketing Association (Canada), Tools of Change (Canada), Centre for Social Mar-
keting Research (University of Wollongong, Australia), Institute for Social Marketing (Stirling Univer-
sity, Scotland) or Dr. Foster Holdings LLP (England).
7  At the beginning of this study, another possibility on that sample, the Australia National Preventa-
tive Health Agency, founded in 2010, did not exist.
47. PART I STUDYING A PUBLIC POLICY PROCESS
47
«Theoretical sampling simply means that cases are selected because they are par-
ticularly suitable for illuminating and extending relationships and logic among
constructs.» (p. 27)
Bearing all these criteria in mind, the selected case for this investigation project
was the British one. It has a national dimension; involves a wide social marketing
national strategy, including an organization resulting from that policy that is still ac-
tive; has a recent origin and is still running, which meant that it could be observed
since its evolution; and because of being set in an European country, it has proxim-
ity, access and relationship conditions. On the other hand, the fundamental reason
was that the course of this investigation has shown that this was an enlightening case
for the demonstration of our hypothesis and the explanatory theory that supports
it. The research has thus sought to show and analyse how the process that generated
that policy had a cognitive basis, which through a specific and diversified mediation
led to the creation of a new frame of reference, the British national public policy on
social marketing with numerous implications, activities and with significant results.
The National Social Marketing Centre was, as I have shown, the main way to access
this research through the recollection of its members’ testimonies, of semi-structured
interviews, its documentation’s research and following some of its activities.
I did several interviews with Jeff French (Director, current CEO of Strategic So-
cial Marketing company), John Bromley (European Advisor, current NSMC Co-
Director), Clive Blair-Stevens (Deputy Director), Patrick Ladbury (Communica-
tions Programme Manager, current NSMC Co-Director), Rowena Merrit (Local
Practitioner Development Manager, current Head of Research), Dominic McVey
(Research Programme Manager), Chris Holmes (Development), Alex Christopou-
los (Project Officer), Paul White (Standards and Learning), Denise Ong (Project
Officer), Marie Meredith (Senior Regional Manager), Lucy Reynolds (ShowCase
Database), Steve Menzies (International Advisor), Emmet Giltrap (London Regional
Manager) and Aiden Truss (Communications).
Among NSMC’s activities, I directly participated in several team meetings, be-
tween 2007 and 2010, the works of the National Occupational Standards for Social
Marketing Workshops and Evaluation (2007-2010), just like the National Learning
Demonstration Sites meetings (Social Marketing Project Breast Cancer Prevention
Demosite, Tameside & Glossop, Manchester, 2008; and Social Marketing Project
Increase Physical Activity Levels, Hattersley, Manchester, 2008), the Regional Pro-
gramme Final Review, the National Learning Demonstration Sites Project Report
or the evaluation programme Value for Money tool, besides the participation in the
National Social Marketing Conference (Oxford, 2007) and in the World Social Mar-
keting Conferences (Brighton, 2008 and Dublin, 2011), organized by the NSMC or
by the Strategic Social Marketing company founded by Jeff French.
Through the NSMC, the access to the British government’s Department of
48. SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE
48
Health (DoH) was possible, as was their available documentation and interviews
with some of its members like Fiona Adshead (Department of Health, Deputy Chief
Medical Officer and Chief Government Advisor on Inequalities), Julie Alexander
(Department of Health, Head of Social Marketing and Health-Related Behaviour,
Public Health Strategy, Social Marketing and Sexual Health Improvement and Pro-
tection Directorate), and Mehboob Umarji (Department of Health, Head of Social
Marketing and Health-Related Behaviour, Public Health Strategy Group). I could
follow several DoH’s connected activities such as the Social Marketing and Health-
Related Behaviour, Public Health Strategy Meetings (2007-2009), the Social Mar-
keting within Public Health Regional Settings (2008-2009) and the Social Market-
ing for Health and Specialized Health Promotion Meetings (2008-2009), besides the
definition of the Healthy Foundations Life-Stage Segmentation Model (2010).
All along this extensive work the analysis of the collected data has taken place ac-
cording to the methodological criteria of a crucial case study typology, developed ac-
cording to Evera’s (1997, pp. 58-67) two main procedures: congruence procedures (see
George, 1979) and process tracing (see George & McKeown, 1985; King et al., 1994):
«When using congruence procedures the investigator explores the case looking for
congruence or incongruence between values observed on the independent and de-
pendent variable and values predicted by the test hypothesis.» (Evera, 1997, p. 58)
«In process tracing the investigator explores the chain of events or the decision-
making process by which initial cases conditions are translated into case out-
comes.» (Evera, 1997, p. 64)
Because it was a work spread through time, a systematic critical appreciation
and evaluation has been searched, through public presentation and element discus-
sion, whether conceptual or empirical. I have developed several papers and presenta-
tions like Santos (2006a); Santos (2006b); Santos (2006c); Santos (2007a); Santos
(2007b); Santos (2008a); Santos (2008b); and Santos (2011). Previously in the field
of this investigation, I had published Santos (2002) and in its course the Portuguese
edition of the book Melhorar a Vida: Um Guia de Marketing Social (Improving Life, A
Social Marketing Guide; Santos et al., 2004, republished in 2012).
50. 237
SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE
Adkins, S. 106, 199
Adshead, F. 29, 48, 143–147, 230
Ajzen, I. 122, 199, 209
Akers, R. L. 122, 199
Alderson, W. 70, 88–94, 199, 206, 212
Aldridge, S. 212
Alexander, J. 29, 48, 143, 147
Allender, S. 171, 199
Allison, G. 68, 200
Almond, G. A. 56, 77, 113, 158, 194, 199, 200
American Marketing Association 15, 97,
100, 101, 123, 200
Andreasen, A. R. 24, 29, 36, 52, 62, 71, 77,
94, 103, 105–107, 115, 117, 119, 123, 125,
149, 187, 191, 200, 203, 217, 228
Angelmar, R. 235
Angus, K. 71, 211, 213, 231
Anker, T. B. 213
Antonovsky, A. 131, 200
Apfel, F. 210
Armitage, D. 54, 201, 226
Arndt, J. 207, 213
Ashton, J. 135, 231
Asimov, Isaac 19, 201
Asimov, Janet 201
Association for Higher Studies of Enterprise
15, 30
Atalaia, J. 229
Atkin, C. K. 228, 231, 233
Atto, W. J. 67, 227
Australia National Preventative Health
Agency 46, 157
Australian Association of Social Marketing
15, 124, 215
Auvergnon, P. 201, 215
Baggott, R. 136, 201
Bagozzi, R. P. 70, 88, 91, 93, 99, 100, 122,
201, 209
Baker, M. J. 79, 88, 201, 213, 215, 230
Bandura, A. 122, 201
Barber, B. 51, 201
Barel, Y. 161, 201
Barksdale, H. C. 201, 226
Barngrover, M. 145, 201
Bartels, R. 82, 83, 87, 88, 90, 93, 97, 201
Barzelay, M. 69, 201
Bass, F. M. 89, 200
Bates, C. 212
Baudrillard, J. 92, 202
Bauman, A. J. 175, 204
Baumgartner, F. R. 39, 202, 233
Beales, G. 212
Bean, J. 51, 202
Beckman, T. N. 89, 202
52. SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY NAME INDEX
239
Central Office of Communication 177,
204
Central Office of Information 15, 149,
168, 170, 173, 178–179, 187, 204, 205,
211, 225
Centre de Recherche sur le Politique,
l’Administration, la Ville et le Territoire
15, 39
Centre for Social Marketing Research 46
Cheng, H. 205, 218
Cherington, P. T. 88, 89, 205
Chomsky, N. 51, 75, 76, 205
Christ Church College 23
Christensen, T. 69, 205
Christopoulos, A. 29, 47, 202
Citizens Advice 37
Citizens Advice Scotland 37
Clark, F. 88, 89, 205
Clemens, M. 233
Coakes, E. 145, 205
Collier, D. 43, 203, 205
Colomb, F. 41, 42, 205
Comello, M. L. G. 216
Cometti, J.-P. 64, 205
Commaille, J. 205, 215
Conklin, A. 227
Consumer Focus 15, 37, 156, 160, 187,
203, 250, 334
Consumer Futures 37
Converse, P. D. 82, 86, 88, 89, 205, 206
Copeland, M. P. 88, 89, 206
Corbin, J. 44, 45, 232
Correia, L. 4, 30
Cosford, P. 177, 202
Coulam, R. 206, 211
Cox, R. 199, 206, 212
Craig, R. T. 122, 206
Croly, H. 67, 206
Czarniawska, B. 44, 206
Dabbs, J. M. Jr. 233
Dahl, R. 70, 193, 206
Dahrendorf, R. 206
Dalkir, K. 145, 146, 206
Dann, S. 123, 206
Deaton, A. 235
Debord, G. 84, 206
Deeds, S. G. 212
DeLeon, P. 68, 195, 206
Demongeot, B. 39, 235
Denning, S. 44, 206
Denzin, N. K. 206
Department for Business Innovation &
Skills 37
Department for the Environment, Food
and Rural Affairs 15, 168, 170
Department of Health 15, 29, 37, 48, 136,
137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 143, 144, 145,
147, 149, 150, 151, 152, 155, 156, 157,
159, 161, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169,
170, 172, 173, 174, 177, 179, 180, 181,
187, 190, 207, 208, 214, 227, 228, 249,
250, 252, 260,
Department of Health and Social Security
15, 136, 207
Dervis, K. 235
Dewey, J. 64–68, 75, 76, 204, 205, 206
Dholakia, N. 207, 209, 213
Dholakia, R. R. 207
DiClemente, C. C. 122, 227
DiMaggio, P. J. 190, 207
Dix, L. F. 214
Dixon, D. F. 82, 90, 207
Dolan, P. 204
Dolowitz, D. 194, 202, 208
Domegan, C. 213
Donaldson, L. 143, 144
Donovan, R. 24, 29, 52, 62, 71, 77, 115,
121, 122, 208, 213
Dorfman, L. 233
Douglas, J. 208, 210
Douglas, M. 92, 208
Dowding, K. 39, 190, 208
54. SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY NAME INDEX
241
Glecker, E. A. 124, 211
Goldberg, M. E. 109, 110, 115, 187, 200,
211
Goldstein, J. 39, 211
Gomes, F. F. 30
Goodin, R. E. 68, 193, 200, 211, 222
Goodspeed, T. 204
Goossens, J. 233
Gordon, R. 37, 110, 175, 210, 211, 231
Government Communication Network
177, 205, 225
Government Office for Science 171, 211,
233
Goyard-Fabre, S. 55, 65, 212
Grabbe, P. 73, 219
Graebner, M. E. 45, 46, 208
Graham, P. 92, 100, 212
Grant, A. J. 212
Gray, J. 212
Green, L. W. 122, 212
Green, P. 199
Green, P. E. 91, 212
Greene, M.R. 201
Greenstein, F. I. 208, 212
Grether, E. T. 88, 89, 212
Griffin, D. 211
Guba, E. G. 44, 219
Guber, P. 43, 212
Gundlach, G. T. 203, 207, 219
Gunther, R. 51, 212
Hague, B. N. 108, 212
Hague, R. 156
Halbert, M. 79, 199, 212
Hall, P. A. 39, 40, 212
Hallsworth, M. 204
Halpern, D. 137, 204, 212
Handsely, S. 208
Hanley, D. 71, 212
Harrison, L. E. 212, 215
Harrop, M. 212
Harvey, P. D. 36, 212
Hastings, G. B. 24, 29, 62, 63, 64, 71, 106,
110, 115, 121, 143, 146, 147, 208, 210,
212, 213, 220, 225, 230
Hayek, F. A. 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 204,
212, 213
Haywood, A. 106, 213
Health Canada Social Marketing Division
15, 134, 157, 159, 187
Health Development Agency 15, 143, 144
Health Sponsorship Council 15, 36, 46,
157, 158, 159, 187, 213
Heathfield, A. 212
Heclo, H. 39, 213
Heede, S. 24, 103, 213
Heider, F. 122, 213
Helmig, B. 37, 213
Henley, N. 52, 71, 77, 208
Herring, E. P. 213
Herschel, R. T. 216
Hewitt, P. 143
Higher Institute Dom Afonso III 15, 30
Higher Institute of Business Communica-
tion 15, 23, 24, 30
Higher Institute of Economic and Finan-
cial Sciences 15, 23
Higher Institute of Labour and Enterprise
Sciences 15, 24, 30
Higher Institute of Languages and Ad-
ministration 15, 30
Higher Institute of Social and Political
Sciences 15, 30
Hill, G. C. 70, 221
Hill, M. 38, 158, 190, 191, 195, 214
Hofferbert, R. 39, 214
Hollander, S. C. 82, 83, 85, 88, 214, 232
Holmes, C. 29, 47
Holt, R. 203, 232
Hood, C. 51, 70, , 214
Hossain, Z. 203
House of Lords 141, 142, 177, 178, 187,
214
55. CARLOS OLIVEIRA SANTOS
242
Houston, F. S. 70, 214
Hovell, M. F. 208
Howard, J. R. 88, 91, 214
Howell, A. W. 223
Hume, D. 54, 55, 56, 59, 62, 214
Hunt, S. D. 88, 91, 92, 97, 214
Huntington, S. 212, 215
Hupe, P. 158, 195, 214
Hussey, L. 51, 202
Hyman, H. H. 108, 214
Iacobucci, D. 214, 230
Iggers, G. C. 83, 215
Immergut, E. M. 158, 190, 191, 215
Inglehart, R. 158, 215
Ingram, H. 73, 215
International Monetary Fund 15, 36, 81
International Social Marketing Associa-
tion 15, 124, 215
Institute for Government 178, 204
Institute for Public and Social Policy 15,
30
Institute for Social Marketing 16, 46, 143,
144, 220
Isherwood, B. 92, 208
Ito, T. 235
Jabko, N. 39, 215
Jackson, M. 44, 215
Jacquot, S. 203
Jain, D. C. 217
James, O. 194, 215
James, W. 63, 64, 67, 215
Jarvis, S. 143, 144, 145
Jenkins-Smith, H. 39, 42, 228
Jenson, J. 42, 215
Jobert, B. 38–41, 129, 130, 131, 137, 141,
147, 149, 153, 161, 168, 176, 185, 186,
189, 192, 205, 215, 218
Jock, K. E. 70, 227
John, P. 190, 215
Johnson, S. 122, 215
Joly, K. 132, 202
Jones, B. D. 39, 202, 233
Jones, B. J. 93, 215
Jones, D. G. B. 79, 83, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93,
103, 207, 214, 215, 216, 230
Jones, L. R. 216
Jones, N. B. 145, 216
Jordan, A. 194, 202
Jordan, A.. G. 39, 216
Jumper-Thurman, P. 216
Kahneman, D. 177, 211, 216
Katzenstein, P. J. 39, 216
Kaufmann-Osborn, T. V. 68, 216
Keble College 11, 23, 25
Keeling, D. 68, 216
Keith, R. J. 82–88, 90, 216
Kelley, E. J. 218
Kelly, K. 122, 216
Keohane, R. 39, 211, 216
Kickert, W. J. M. 216, 217
King, A. 213, 216
King, D. 204
King, G. 216
Kingdon, J. 216
Kinnear, T. C. 216, 233
Kirp, D. L. 51, 216
Kissinger, H. 68, 216
Klein, N. 92, 216
Klingemann, H.-D. 200, 211, 223, 226
Knoke, D. 39, 216
Kollat, D. T. 209
König, K. 69, 216
König, T. 226
Kooiman, J. 68, 209, 217, 221
Kotler, P. 11, 24, 29, 35, 36, 51, 62, 69, 70,
71, 76, 88, 90, 91, 94–101, 103–106, 108,
111, 116, 118, 123, 124, 125, 132, 182,
187, 205, 210, 217, 218, 230
Kozlowski, S. W. J. 223
Kremer, M. 81, 217
Kreuter, M. W. 212
Kuehn, A. A. 210
56. SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY NAME INDEX
243
Kuhn, T. 131, 218
Kurtz D. L. 83, 203
Laczniak, G. R. 218
Ladbury, P. 29, 47
Laegreid, P. 69, 205
Lagarde, F. 132, 134, 218
Lage, M. 222
Lalonde, M. 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 157,
187, 218
Laski, H. J. 218
Lasswell, H. D. 68, 218, 219
Latham, G.P. 122, 219
Lawlor, E. 204
Lawther, S. 218
Layton, R. A. 92, 218
Lazer, W. 88, 90, 201, 218
Le Galès, P. 218, 219
Le Net, M. 11, 111–114, 218
Leca, J. 39, 218
Lee, A 117, 222
Lee, J. 226
Lee, N. 29, 51, 69, 105, 106, 115, 116,
123, 124, 125, 182, 205, 210, 217, 218
Lefebvre, R. C. 29, 36, 106, 218, 219
Lehmbruch, G. 39, 219
Lerner, D. 68, 218, 219
Levitt, T. 85, 219
Levy, S. J. 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 101, 217
Lewin, K. 11, 73, 74, 75, 101, 219
Lewis, E. H. 89, 219
Lincoln, Y. S. 43, 44, 206, 219
Lindblom, C. E. 110, 219
Lindenberger, J. 29, 119
Lindon, D. 51, 219
Lindsteadt, J. F. 219
Ling, J. C. 219
Lippitt, R. 73, 219, 234
Lister, G. 36, 175, 219, 225
Lloyd, C. E. 208
Loader, B. D. 108, 212
Locke, E. A. 122, 219
Locke, J. 54, 55, 56, 60, 218, 220
Lodge, M. 194, 215
London School of Hygiene and Tropical
Medicine 16, 175,
Lopes, N. 229
Lopes, O. 108, 220
Lowi, T. J. 220
Lowry, R. 218
Lucas Jr., R. E. 81, 220
Luck, D. 97, 220
Lusch, R. F. 218
Lynn Jr., L. 51, 70, 209, 220
Maarek, P. 51, 220
Macdonald, G. 132, 204, 219
MacFadyen, L. 106, 117, 220
MacIntyre, A. 65, 220
Mackie, T. 156, 220
MacLaran, P. 79, 80, 82, 201, 209, 215,
218, 220, 222, 226, 230
Maesingee, S. 217
Magee, B. 220
Majone, G. 39, 220
Mallen, B. E. 89, 220
Maltez, J. A. 30
Mannheim, K. 61, 220
Manoff, R. K. 36, 71, 220
Manrai, A. K. 222
Maranga, A. 229
March, J. G. 190, 220
Marketing Sales and Standard Setting
Body 16, 249, 250, 306
Marketing Social Portugal Website 25,
229
Marques-Pereira, B. 215
Marsh, D. 38, 39, 135, 156, 194, 195, 202,
208
Marshall, M. V. 90, 203
Martin, P. 201
Martin, S. 51, 221
Marx, K. 60, 221
Maslow, A. H. 94, 221
58. SOCIAL MARKETING IN A COUNTRY NAME INDEX
245
Newell, A. 177, 223
New University of Lisbon 16
Nicholls, J. 204
Nickels, W. G. 97, 223
Nimmo, D. 51, 232
Nirodh 36
Nizard, L. 39, 129, 223
Nonaka, I. 145, 223
Norris, P. 51, 223,
Novelli, W. D. 29, 36, 52, 106, 144, 169,
203
Nystrom, P. H. 88, 89, 225
O’Connor, E. 44, 225
O’Donnell, G. 44, 71, 108, 112, 225
O’Hear, A. 61, 220, 225
Office for the Third Sector 177, 204
Office of Communication 225
Olsen, J. P. 190, 220
Olsen, W. 43, 204
Ong, D. 29, 47, 225
Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development 19, 69, 225
Orum, A. M. 209
Osborne, D. 225
Oxford Strategic Marketing 169, 177,
179, 208
Packard, V. 51, 92, 96, 225
Palazzo, G. 106, 225
Panigyrakis, G. C. 93, 225
Pappi F.-U. 39, 216, 226
Parker, H. T. 83, 215
Parlin, C. 88, 89, 226
Parloa, M. 11, 82, 226
Parsons, E. 82, 226
Partridge, K. B. 212
Parvatiyar, A. 92, 230
Peirce, C. S. 64, 67, 205, 225, 226
Pels, J. 222
Pessimier, E. A. 201
Peters, B. G. 51, 52, 69, 226
Pettit, P. 53, 226
Petty, R. 93
Pick, J. 51, 227
Pinhson, C. R. A. 235
Pirani, S. 119, 226
Plested, B. A. 216
Pocock, J. G. A. 226
Polanyi, M. 146, 226
Pollet, G. 209, 226
Polletta, F. 44, 226
Pollitt, C. 69, 209, 226
Polsby, N. W. 208, 212
Popper, K. 26, 38, 39, 59–64, 70, 220,
225, 227, 230
Powell, W. 190, 207
Prestritto, R. J. 227
Primary Care Trust 16, 136, 153, 168,
172, 173
Primarolo, D. 143, 150
Prochaska, J. O. 122, 227
Protherough, R. 51, 227
Public Health Action Support Team 8, 16,
153, 171, 172, 226, 249, 322
Public Health England 12, 16, 37, 181,
182, 187, 207, 208, 226
Putnam, R. 227
Quelch, J. 70, 227
Rabinovich, L. 173, 227
Radaelli, C. M. 39, 227
Ragin, C. 43, 156, 204, 227
Rand Corporation Europe 173, 174, 175,
177, 227
Rao, V. R. 212
Rassuli, K. M. 88, 214
Ravinet, P. 203
Rayner, M. 171, 199
Reddy, S. 203
Reeves, R. 227
Reich, C. A. 98, 227
Reid, J. 143
Reilly, W. J. 88, 89, 227
Rein, M. 211, 222
59. CARLOS OLIVEIRA SANTOS
246
Reisman. D. 71, 227
Reizes, T. 119, 226
Remacle, E. 215
Reto, L. 30, 107, 227
Reynolds, L. 29, 47, 202, 210
Rhodes, R. A. W. 39, 190, 220
Ribeiro, S. 229
Rice, R. E. 228, 231, 233
Richards, S. 69, 221
Richardson, J. J. 39, 212, 216
Ries, A. 88, 90, 228
Rimer, B. K. 121, 122, 228
Road Accident Research Unit 36,
Roberto, E. 24, 35, 36, 106, 108, 217
Roberto, N. 217
Roe, E. M. 39, 228
Rogers, E. M. 39, 122, 228
Rogers, R. W. 122, 228
Rosanvallon, P. 69, 228
Rosenstock, I. 122, 228
Ross, M. G. 122, 223
Rothschild, M. 29, 110, 119, 124, 182,
217, 218, 228
Rothstein, B. 39, 228
Rowling, J.K. 23, 228
Royal Society for Public Health 16, 225
Rozenblatt, P. 201
Russell, D. W. 211
Ryan, F. W. 88, 89, 228
Ryan, W. 228
Sá, J. 30, 107, 227
Sabatier, P. A. 38, 39, 40, 42, 130, 202,
228, 233, 235
Salamon, L. M. 68, 202
Santos, C. O. 4, 5, 11, 24, 25, 33, 45, 48,
109, 113, 156, 228, 229
Saren, M. 79, 88, 92, 93, 93, 201, 203,
213, 220, 222, 230
Sarmento, C. M. 30
Sartori, G. 51, 230
Savitt, R. 83, 214, 230, 232
Sawhney, M. 71, 230
Schedler, K. 216
Schlipp, P. A. 230
Schmidt, V. A. 25, 29, 38, 39, 41, 227, 230
Schmitt, N. 223
Schneider, A. L. 73, 215
Schochet, G. 226
School of Economics and Management
15, 24
Schuchman, A. 201
Schwartz, B. 29, 230
Schwarzer, R. 122, 230
Schwoerer, L. G. 226
Shaping the Future of Health Promotion
224
Shapiro, I. 206
Shapiro, S. 30
Shaw, A. W. 86, 88, 89, 230
Shaw, E. H. 82, 88, 93, 216, 230
Shawver, D. 201
Shearmur, J. 61, 230
Sheatsley, P. B. 108, 214
Sheth, J. N. 88, 91, 92, 214, 230
Silva, J. 30
Simões, A. 229
Simon, H. A. 177, 223
Singer, O. 39, 230
Singleton, S. 110, 232
Sjoberg, G. 209
Skinner, Q. 54, 231
Skocpol, T. 156, 231
Slater, C. C. 88, 92, 231
Slater, M. 216
Slovic, P. 216
Smith, A. 39, 54, 55, 56, 59, 60, 227, 231
Smith, M. J. 39, 190, 231
Smith, P. 145, 205
Smith, R. 206, 211
Smith, W. 29, 62, 110, 218, 221
Smith, W. A. 71. 110, 231
Smith, W. R. 88, 90, 231
62. CARLOS OLIVEIRA SANTOS
344
SOCIAL MARKETING MARKETING PUBLIC POLICY
MARKETING THOUGHT AND HISTORY POLICY PROCESSES
Since 2004, the British government has delivered a wider national policy on social
marketing that has created a new frame of reference in this field. Using a cognitive
approach, this book studies the genesis, evolution, and implementation of that policy
process that led to an important development in British public health policy, with the
aim of improving social behaviour change and wellbeing. May it contribute to the
conception and development of similar policy solutions in other situations and countries
according to appropriate transfer and implementation!
«This research that you are undertaking is extremely important and will help us
and others who are interested in how to set up such organizations to develop their
plans. We have been happy to collaborate with you on this work and would like
to thank you for the opportunity to be involved. I would also like to thank you
for the considerate and charming way that you have engaged with us.»
Professor Jeff French, Director of the National Social Marketing Centre, 2008
Carlos Oliveira Santos is an assistant professor at University of Lisbon (Portugal), PhDÂ in Political Science
(Public Policy) by New University of Lisbon. Since 1992, he has pioneered the study and teaching of social
marketing in Portugal and has created the website Marketing Social Portugal (www.marketingsocialportu-
gal.net). Previous publications have included Melhorar a Vida, Um Guia de Marketing Social (Improving
Life, A Social Marketing Guide, 2004), the first social marketing textbook in Portuguese. Outside this field,
he has published several books with studies about some of the biggest Portuguese Âenterprises as Amorim
Group, Galp Energia, Mota-Engil and Pestana Hotels & Resorts Group, among others.